English Grammar: An Introduction

In order to get to grips with subordinate clauses, it is necessary to complete our review of the closed class words, ie. to focus on the cement rather than the building bricks. A listing of these words is given in 2.1.2.

Closed class words have three main roles in language. (a) They act as "MARKERS" of open class words, ie. they give us warning of what kind of word or clause is likely to occur next. (b) They locate an utterance more precisely in time and space. (c) They link parts of phrases and clauses together. The summary below gives the form and function label where appropriate for each type of word.

7.3.1. Words functioning within the phrase

Some closed class words have a function within the phrase:

7.3.1.1.

Determiners introduce N's and function as modifiers within the phrase. In sentence frames they precede Aj and N.

They also indicate whether a following noun is definite or indefinite (the book/a book) and its proximity to the speaker (this book/that book).

Enumerators (numerals) are a sub-group of determiners. There are two types of these:

7.3.1.2.

Auxiliary verbs are used to make complex verb forms. There are two types: primary and modal. (See Unit 6.)

7.3.1.3.

Pronouns replace nouns as headwords in phrases.

Pronouns are also used as indefinite subjects:

Sometimes this vague use of it can lead to ambiguity, as in "He opened his mouth and put his foot in it".

Many forms are both determiner and pronoun. If they are determiners, they must have a following noun:

7.3.2. Particles

PARTICLES are closed class words which do not function as M or H in the phrase; they are either labelled "x" or left blank. They include:

7.3.2.1.

Prepositions mark the beginnings of PP's. They usually indicate the location of the following N. As we have seen (3.5), many forms are both pr and Av. There are also some complex prepositions, such as on top of, out of, outside of. These are treated as single units in analysis. In the last two, the first word is an adverb.

7.3.2.2.

Conjunctions link words, phrases and clauses.

There are two types of conjunctions:

1. CO-ORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS: and, or, but. These are used to link phrases and clauses which are at the same level in the rank scale.
2. SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS: after, although, as, because, before, if, how, however, like, once, since, than, that, though, till, unless, until, when, where, while; COMPLEX: as far as, as if, in case, in (order) that, rather than, so that, etc.
   These are used to mark subordinate clauses.

CORRELATIVE conjunctions attach to two separate elements. These can be
CO-ORDINATING: both ... and, (n)either ... (n)or
SUBORDINATING: if ... then, although ... yet, etc.

7.3.2.3.

Interjections are irrelevant to the structure of the phrase or clause and are therefore placed outside the brackets. A proper name used in this way is sometimes called a VOCATIVE.

7.3.2.4.

Negation: The only word that need concern us here is not and its abbreviation n't.

Note that never, nowhere etc are adverbs of time, not particles.

In an expression like "no hope", no is a determiner.